What Is the Accounting and Auditing Organization for Islamic Financial Institutions?

The Accounting and Auditing Organization for Islamic Financial Institutions (AAOIFI) is a not-for-profit organization that was established to maintain and promote Shari'ah standards for Islamic financial institutions, participants, and the overall industry. The Accounting and Auditing Organization for Islamic Financial Institutions (AAOIFI) was created on February 26, 1990, to ensure that participants conform to the regulations set out in Islamic finance.

The founding and associate members, as well as the regulatory and supervisory authorities of the Accounting and Auditing Organization for Islamic Financial Institutions, define the acceptable standards for various functions. This includes areas such as accounting, governance, ethics, transactions, and investment.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

The Accounting and Auditing Organization for Islamic Financial Institutions (AAOIFI) oversees Islamic banking to ensure its members follow the rules and prohibitions set forth by Shari'ah law.

In Islamic banking, the collection of interest (riba) is forbidden, and sharing of profits and losses amongst the community is mandated.

Due to the increased role of global finance, and the importance of Arabic and Muslim regions in the world economy, the AAOIFI is constantly updating its best practices and guidelines to adjust for new innovations such as hedging instruments and derivatives.

Understanding the Accounting and Auditing Organization for Islamic Financial Institutions

In Islamic finance, there are unique rules, restrictions, and requirements regarding business and investing. In order to be considered acceptable, transactions must adhere to the principals under Shariah. The Accounting and Auditing Organization for Islamic Financial Institutions sets compliance standards for institutions that wish to gain access to the Islamic banking market.

The AAOIFI is continually updating its scope to include the various new financial instruments entering markets around the world. For example, new hedging mechanisms would first need to be discussed and accepted by the AAOIFI before any member would offer these services.

Islamic Finance Basics

Two fundamental principles of Islamic (shari'ah) banking are the sharing of profit and loss, and the prohibition of the collection and payment of interest by lenders and investors. Islamic law prohibits collecting interest, known as "riba." Although Islamic finance began in the seventh century, it has been formalized gradually since the late 1960s. This process was driven by the tremendous oil wealth that fueled renewed interest in and demand for Sharia-compliant products and practice.

To earn money without the use of charging interest, Islamic banks use equity participation systems. Equity participation means if a bank loans money to a business, the business will pay back the loan without interest, but instead gives the bank a share in its profits. If the business defaults or does not earn a profit, then the bank also does not benefit.

For example, in 1963, Egyptians formed an Islamic bank in Mit Ghmar. When the bank loaned money to businesses, it did so on a profit-sharing model. To reduce its risk, the bank only approved about 40% of its business loan applications, but the default ratio was zero.

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Islamic Banks vs. Islamic Windows

While an Islamic bank is one that is entirely operated using Islamic principles, an Islamic window refers to services that are based on Islamic principles that are provided by a conventional bank. Some commercial banks offer Islamic banking services through dedicated windows or sections.

Example of Islamic Banking

The Mit-Ghamr Savings Bank, established in 1963 in Egypt, is commonly referred to as the first example of Islamic banking in the modern world. When Mit Ghamr loaned money to businesses, it did so on a profit-sharing model. The Mit-Ghamr project was closed in 1967 due to political factors but during its year of operations the bank exercised a great deal of caution, only approved about 40% of its business loan applications. However, in economically good times, the bank's default ratio was said to be zero.

In general, Islamic banking institutions tend to be more risk adverse in their investment practices. As a result, they typically avoid business that could be associated with economic bubbles.

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Understanding Islamic Banking

Islamic banking is grounded in the tenets of the Islamic faith as they relate to commercial transactions. The principles of Islamic banking are derived from the Qur'an–the central religious text of Islam. In Islamic banking, all transactions must be compliant with shariah, the legal code of Islam (based on the teachings of the Qur'an). The rules that govern commercial transactions in Islamic banking are referred to as Fiqh al-muamalat.

Bankers who are employed by institutions that abide by Islamic banking are entrusted with not deviating from the fundamental principles of the Qur'an while they are conducting business. When more information or guidance is necessary, Islamic bankers turn to learned scholars or use independent reasoning based on scholarship and customary practices.

One of the primary differences between conventional banking systems and Islamic banking is that Islamic banking prohibits usury and speculation. Shariah strictly prohibits any form of speculation or gambling, which is referred to as maisir. Shariah also prohibits taking interest on loans.

To earn money without the typical practice of charging interest, Islamic banks use equity participation systems. Equity participation means if a bank loans money to a business, the business will pay back the loan without interest, but instead gives the bank a share in its profits. If the business defaults or does not earn a profit, then the bank also does not benefit.

In addition, any investments involving items or substances that are prohibited in the Qur'an–including alcohol, gambling, pork–are also prohibited. In this way, Islamic banking can be considered a culturally distinct form of ethical investing.

The practices of Islamic banking are usually traced back to businesspeople in the Middle East who started engaging in financial transactions with businesspeople in Europe during the Medieval era. At first, businesspeople in the Middle East used the same financial principles as the Europeans. However, over time, as trading systems developed and European countries started establishing local branches of their banks in the Middle East, some of these banks adopted the local customs of the region where they were newly established, primarily no-interest financial systems that worked on a profit and loss sharing method. By adopting these practices, these European banks could also serve the needs of local businesspeople who were Muslim.

Beginning in the 1960s, Islamic banking resurfaced in the modern world, and since 1975, many new interest-free banks have opened. While the majority of these institutions were founded in Muslim countries, Islamic banks also opened in Western Europe during the early 1980s. In addition, national interest-free banking systems have been developed by the governments of Iran, Sudan, and (to a lesser extent) Pakistan.

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Understanding the Accounting and Auditing Organization for Islamic Financial Institutions

In Islamic finance, there are unique rules, restrictions, and requirements regarding business and investing. In order to be considered acceptable, transactions must adhere to the principals under Shariah. The Accounting and Auditing Organization for Islamic Financial Institutions sets compliance standards for institutions that wish to gain access to the Islamic banking market.

The AAOIFI is continually updating its scope to include the various new financial instruments entering markets around the world. For example, new hedging mechanisms would first need to be discussed and accepted by the AAOIFI before any member would offer these services.

Islamic Finance Basics

Two fundamental principles of Islamic (shari'ah) banking are the sharing of profit and loss, and the prohibition of the collection and payment of interest by lenders and investors. Islamic law prohibits collecting interest, known as "riba." Although Islamic finance began in the seventh century, it has been formalized gradually since the late 1960s. This process was driven by the tremendous oil wealth that fueled renewed interest in and demand for Sharia-compliant products and practice.

To earn money without the use of charging interest, Islamic banks use equity participation systems. Equity participation means if a bank loans money to a business, the business will pay back the loan without interest, but instead gives the bank a share in its profits. If the business defaults or does not earn a profit, then the bank also does not benefit.

For example, in 1963, Egyptians formed an Islamic bank in Mit Ghar. When the bank loaned money to businesses, it did so on a profit-sharing model. To reduce its risk, the bank only approved about 40% of its business loan applications, but the default ratio was zero.

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Islamic Banks vs. Islamic Windows

While an Islamic bank is one that is entirely operated using Islamic principles, an Islamic window refers to services that are based on Islamic principles that are provided by a conventional bank. Some commercial banks offer Islamic banking services through dedicated windows or sections.

Example of Islamic Banking

The Mit-Ghamr Savings Bank, established in 1963 in Egypt, is commonly referred to as the first example of Islamic banking in the modern world. When Mit Ghamr loaned money to businesses, it did so on a profit-sharing model. The Mit-Ghamr project was closed in 1967 due to political factors but during its year of operations the bank exercised a great deal of caution, only approved about 40% of its business loan applications. However, in economically good times, the bank's default ratio was said to be zero.

In general, Islamic banking institutions tend to be more risk adverse in their investment practices. As a result, they typically avoid business that could be associated with economic bubbles.

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Understanding Islamic Banking

Islamic banking is grounded in the tenets of the Islamic faith as they relate to commercial transactions. The principles of Islamic banking are derived from the Qur'an–the central religious text of Islam. In Islamic banking, all transactions must be compliant with shariah, the legal code of Islam (based on the teachings of the Qur'an). The rules that govern commercial transactions in Islamic banking are referred to as Fiqh al-muamalat.

Bankers who are employed by institutions that abide by Islamic banking are entrusted with not deviating from the fundamental principles of the Qur'an while they are conducting business. When more information or guidance is necessary, Islamic bankers turn to learned scholars or use independent reasoning based on scholarship and customary practices.

One of the primary differences between conventional banking systems and Islamic banking is that Islamic banking prohibits usury and speculation. Shariah strictly prohibits any form of speculation or gambling, which is referred to as maisir. Shariah also prohibits taking interest on loans.

To earn money without the typical practice of charging interest, Islamic banks use equity participation systems. Equity participation means if a bank loans money to a business, the business will pay back the loan without interest, but instead gives the bank a share in its profits. If the business defaults or does not earn a profit, then the bank also does not benefit.

In addition, any investments involving items or substances that are prohibited in the Qur'an–including alcohol, gambling, pork–are also prohibited. In this way, Islamic banking can be considered a culturally distinct form of ethical investing.

The practices of Islamic banking are usually traced back to businesspeople in the Middle East who started engaging in financial transactions with businesspeople in Europe during the Medieval era. At first, businesspeople in the Middle East used the same financial principles as the Europeans. However, over time, as trading systems developed and European countries started establishing local branches of their banks in the Middle East, some of these banks adopted the local customs of the region where they were newly established, primarily no-interest financial systems that worked on a profit and loss sharing method. By adopting these practices, these European banks could also serve the needs of local businesspeople who were Muslim.

Beginning in the 1960s, Islamic banking resurfaced in the modern world, and since 1975, many new interest-free banks have opened. While the majority of these institutions were founded in Muslim countries, Islamic banks also opened in Western Europe during the early 1980s. In addition, national interest-free banking systems have been developed by the governments of Iran, Sudan, and (to a lesser extent) Pakistan.

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I wish to donate bank interest credited by my bank on the understanding that I am not allowed to utilize it. Can I deduct bank charges and give away the net amount?

Bank

A bank is a financial institution that accepts deposits from the public and creates credit. Lending activities can be performed either directly or indirectly through capital markets.

What Is Islamic Banking?

Islamic banking, also referred to as Islamic finance or shariah-compliant finance, refers to finance or banking activities that adhere to shariah (Islamic law). Two fundamental principles of Islamic banking are the sharing of profit and loss, and the prohibition of the collection and payment of interest by lenders and investors.

There are more than 300 banks and 250 mutual funds around the world that comply with Islamic principles. Between 2000 and 2016, Islamic banks' capital grew from $200 billion to close to $3 trillion in 2016. This growth is largely due to the rising economies of Muslim countries (especially those that have benefited from the rising price of oil).

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During this time of caution due of the Covid-19 situation, does the use of alcohol based hand sanitizers invalidate fasting? If not, is it only allowed during these difficult days or is it a general ruling?

as salam alaikum

there is no problem in using alcohol based hand sanitizers and it does not invalidate the fast. This is a general ruling and it is not limited to any particular time-period.

With prayers for your success.

I am sorry to hear you have to go through that. I am sure that is very upsetting.

Well, it is not as if God is going to punish you or send you to hell because your mother is cursing you while she is drunk. However, it isn't healthy to have that kind of negativity directed towards you, so if there is anything you can do to provide a more positive and spiritually/personally uplifting environment around yourself (for instance, listening to Qur'an on headphones), it might help deal with some of the negativity.

Also if possible it might be good

as salam alaikum

there are ahadith stating that the prayer for the one who have consumed wine will not be accepted for forty days. There is no mention in those ahadith that his dhikr or du'a won't be accepted and actually it is said that such practices can accompany Muslims in all circumstances of life.

In the mentioned case, the person should also not forget to do istighfar and ask forgiveness for the sin that he committed. If he sincerely repents and has resolution of not committing the sin anymore,  Allah is certainly All-Forgiving.

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Is it a sin to drink alcohol? What is my position if I drink alcohol but still perform Solat five times a day?

Drinking alcohol is a major sin in Islam. Major sins lead to hell fire.

Allah, The Glorious ordered Muslims in Quran to be away from alcohol and called as (Evil from the work of Satan)(5:90).

Prophetic Hadeeth says : The person who drinks alcohol is like an idol worshiper. (Eqaab al-A'maal by Shaikh al-Sadouq).

Our leading scholars stated that denying the prohibition of alcohol is denying a compulsory rule in Islam which amounts to denying Islam as a religion.

Wassalam.

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How does one attach their heart to the household of the Prophet (s)? Can I have practical tips other than Duas to achieve it?

Bismillah

Thank you for your question. Other than sending copious blessings on the Prophet (saw) and his family, one of the most important ways of building our relationship with them (as) is to educate ourselves about their stations in the eyes of Allah. This can be achieved through studying the scriptural sources as well as philosophy and theoretical mysticism. Through studying history a person can also gain an appreciation of their actions and efforts in transmitting true Islam to their followers.

May you always be successful

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Tawassul is in fact a form of worshiping Allah and sincere Tawheed, that is why Allah (SWT) ordered the believers to do Tawassul to get forgiveness. In Sura Annisaa' verse 64: (Had they when they did injustice to themselves (committed sins) come to you then seek forgiveness and the messenger prayed for their forgiveness, they would have found Allah accepting repent and Merciful.

Allah (SWT) has ordered the believers to do Tawassul ( Sura 5, verse 35).

Tawassul does not mean worshiping other than Allah ( to be looked at as Shirk by some ignorant Wahabis) but it means seeking the blessings of the most humble servants of Allah to seek from Allah (SWT).

We believe that no wish can be granted through Tawassul but only by Allah (SWT).

In Quran we read in Sura Yousuf when his brothers requested their father (Prophet Yaqoob) to seek forgiveness from Allah for them and he accepted and said: I will seek forgiveness for you. (Sura Yousuf, verse 97). If it was wrong, the prophet Yaqoob should have told them when they did Tawassul through him.

Wassalam.

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Sayyed belongs to the family tree of the Prophet Muhammad (SAWA), that is why he should respect and act upon the teachings of the Prophet (SAWA) and Ahlul Bayt (AS).

Pious Sayyeds have great rule in history of Muslims in spreading the message of Islam in many countries. Great number of our Maraaji' of Taqleed, leading scholars, authors and teachers are Sayyeds.

Some of the scholars stated that the good deeds of Sayyed will have more reward, while bad deeds from him will cause him more hardship. They mention the Quranic verse 33:30 ( يضاعف لها العذاب ضعفين )as an evidence which states doubling the punishment of the sins if committed by a wife of the Prophet (SAWA). Sayyeds should keep the respect of the Prophet (SAWA) and Ahlul Bayt (AS) in their behavior.

Every Muslim must respect the Sayyeds and help them as far as he can.

The Prophetic Hadeeth states: Love Allah, for His bounties on you, and love me for the love of Allah, and love my Progeny (Ahlul Bayt) for my love.

We have many Hadeethes encouraging Muslims to be kind, co-operative, helpful and respecting Sadaat (Sayyeds) being from the family tree of the Prophet (SAWA).

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5) Some more Suggestions

The Shi'ah community of North America is, al hamdulila-Lah, affluent to take care of its children. And I strongly believe that our organizations, specially the federal, national or umbrella organi­zations, must establish scholarship pro­grams for those who want to pursue ad­vance studies in all fields of knowledge. They should also establish 'awards' for those of our children who show excellence in their academic fields. Even Muslim scholars and scientists should be awarded for their achievements. Such projects already exist among other eth­nic and religious groups. e.g., the Jewish people, who recognise the achievements of their own people. We should we not take pride in our community mem­bers and support them.

If there are organizations which have such programs, then they should be more publicized among- our communities all over North America. I hope the ideas I have thrown around will help in gener­ating discussion and formulating a vision and a view of future, which, I believe is optimistic.

Remember, our Imams have said that if you have to select between wealth and knowledge, go for knowledge: wealth can he stolen but knowledge can never be taken away; wealth decreases with us­age but the more you use your knowl­edge the more you increase in it.

Look at the examples of our Imams: the rulers took away the wealth but they could not take away the knowl­edge which had been bestowed upon them by Allah. In spite of all the bitter­ness between Imam Ali and first caliphs, the second caliph used to approach Imam Ali whenever he could not resolve a legal or Qur'anic problem.

We are in minority in this continent; when political stability and economic prosperity is there, we as immigrants or minorities are acceptable. But no one knows what will happen to the present tolerant environment when the economic indicator goes down or these countries lose their political stability. Look at the anti-immigrant, sentiments in Europe during the last two years. Our wealth may be taken away; but if we have knowledge, no one will be able to deprive us of it. With knowledge, we may regain our wealth; but with wealth, you cannot buy knowledge

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4) Education at Advanced Level

At the present stage of our settlement, on this continent, we cannot think of the same solution for the advanced level or education as we presented about the basic level of education. Maybe, our fu­ture generations may explore the means and ways of establishing an Islamic uni­versity which our students can study the so-called 'non-religious' sciences not as anti-religious but as part of their 'reli­gious' outlook.

At the moment, however, our efforts should be concentrated on bridging the gap between the 'ulama and the scien­tists on the intellectual and mental lev­els. This may be done in two ways:

a) Short Term

There should be regular inter-action, dialogue and discussion between the ulama and scholars of secular sciences.

b) Long Term

(a) The 'ulama’ should become famil­iar with the modern scientific issues: their information on social, economic, and ethical issues of our time must be up- to-date and correct.

In the old Islamic system, there was no separation between the centers of learning of religious and secular sciences. You could have gone to Baghdad, Hella, Najaf, Ray, Cairo, Fez, Qum or Cordova for seeking of religious as well as scien­tific knowledge. Even now, I personally know of examples among the 'ulama' of Qum who had hired a learned economist from the University of Tehran to visit them on a weekly basis to discuss the most modern and advance economic theories of the time. My own grandfather was an ‘alim and also a tabib.

(b) The Muslim scientists must famil­iar themselves with the basic texts of Is­lam: the Qur'an and sunnah.

The Muslim scientists must become familiar with the Islamic literature related to the areas of their specialization. When the Prophet said, "I am leaving two pre­cious things amongst you: the Book of Allah and my family; as long as you hold to them you will never be led astray," he was not only addressing the ‘ulama': he was leaving these two guides for the en­tire ummah.

Out of six thousand and some verses of the Qur'an, only five hun­dred arc on fiqh, The verses on nature and creation are still waiting explanation by the Muslim scientists. The ahadith on nature and science arc still waiting for explanation at the hands of Muslim sci­entists. Allamah Majlisi has compiled a 110 volumes encyclopaedia of Ahadith known as Biharul Anwar. In this com­pilation, there a complete volume on the verses and ahadith related to the earth and heavens; this particular volume is sub-titled as 'kitabu ‘s-sama" wa 'l ardh" — the book of the heaven and earth.

Small steps have already been taken by some scientists to study the original texts of Islam on scientific issues. The fore-most example is that of Dr. Maurice BuCaille in his Bible, Qur'an Science. Also a group of Canadian science Lists from the University of Toronto were invited in early eighties by a university in Arabia to study embryology in the Quran and hadith. These non-Muslims were aston­ished to see that the Qur'an spoke about issues which have been discovered only recently by the modern science on em­bryology.

My prayers is to see that Muslim sci­entists come up with ground-breaking theories based on the Quran and Ahadith rather than wait for science to discover something and then say that it was men­tioned by the Qur'an 1400 years ago!

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3) Education at the Basic Level

What can we do to combine the reli­gions and secular education for Muslim children in North America? There are two solutions to these problems: a short-term and a long-term solution.

a) The Short Term Solution

Send our children to the public or pri­vate school for secular education; and for their religious education, send them to the: Sunday schools and summer pro­grams. This is what we are doing at this stage of our settlement in this continent.

But this short-term solution is not a complete solution, its still suffers from the problem of separating religion from science; religion from real life issues. If the parents do not implement what is taught to the students at the Sunday schools, then there is the danger that the student might suffer from the double standard syndrome: behave as a Muslim in madrasah, masjid and majlis but. be­have as a “regular” with others.

b) The Long-Term Solution

Creation of full time Islamic schools. This will provide The Muslim students with a morally Islamic atmosphere turning the peer pressure in favour of Islam rather than against Islam.

Secondly, a full time Islamic school would integrate the secular sciences with religious sciences — science will became not only a servant of man but also a means of serving Allah, subhanahu wa ta'ala.

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1) Importance of Education

Transcript of the paper presented at the First Annual Conference of the Ahlu 'l-bayt Assembly of North America, October 12-13, 1993, Toronto, Canada.

*****************

In a society where religion and knowledge in general and science in particular do not go hand in hand, it seems necessary to briefly describe the position of Islam vis-à-vis knowledge, Islam, in theory as well as in practice, has always promoted knowledge. Distinctive mark of human beings over the an­gels is knowledge:

"And Allah taught Adam all the names…” (2:31)

The first verses of the Quran began with the word:

"Read. Read in the name of thy Lord who created; [He] created the human being from blood clot. Read in the name of thy Lord who taught by the pen: [He] taught the human being what he did not know." (96: 1-5).

The Qur'an says.

"Are those who have knowledge equal to those who do not have knowledge?!”(39:9).

The Prophet of Islam (peace be upon him and his progeny) has also empha­sized the importance of seeking knowl­edge in different ways:

(a) Time: "Seek knowledge from the cradle to the grave."

(b) Place: "Seek knowledge even if it is far as China."

(c) Gender: "Seeking of knowledge is a duty of every Muslim"

(d) Source: "Wisdom is the lost prop­erty of the believer, he should take it even if finds it in the mouth of a mushrik."

The Prophet did not only preach about importance of knowledge, he also gave examples of promoting knowledge. In the very first battle between the Muslims and unbelievers or Mecca, known as the war of Badr, the Muslims gain victory and caught seventy kuffars as prisoners of war. One of the criteria of releasing the POWs devised by the Prophet was that those who were literate among the pris­oners could go free if they teach ten Mus­lim children how to read and write.

2) What Type of Knowledge?

Knowledge in Islam is normally di­vided into two broad categories: there is a famous saying "al-'ilm "ilman: 'ilmu- adyan wa ilmu abdan - knowledge is of two kinds: the knowledge concerning religions and the knowledge concerning [human and physical] bodies." What has been mentioned above on the importance of knowledge refers to both, the religious as well as the secular knowledge.

The Quran has specifically talked about science also:

"In the creation of the heavens and the earth the alternation of the night and the day, in the ships that sail in the sea with their load…. in the rain which Allah sends down from the sky and thus revives the earth after its death; and then He spread in all kinds of animals; in the changing of the winds: in the clouds which have been left suspending between the heaven and the earth -in all these are clear signs for the people who understand” (2:164)

"We shall show them Our signs in the horizons and in themselves." (41:53)

The backwardness of the Muslims in last few centuries, as far as education is concerned, is because of the following:

• The Muslims lost leadership in the field of physical science and technology because of arrogance which led to stag­nation.

• The invasion by the Mongols, who were barbarians and did not appreciate the value of knowledge: they burned down the most prestigious libraries in Baghdad.

• In the nineteenth century, when the Muslims attempted to revive the process of education and knowledge in their so­cieties, they naively adapted the western secular system which had completely separated the religious sciences from the secular sciences. (Example of the Turk­ish reformers of the last century and also Egyptian intellectuals of the early twen­tieth century, especially Dr. Taha Husayn in his Mustaqbilu ‘th-Thaqafah fi Misr. We can also mention Sir Syed Ahmad Khan of India.) The Muslim world is still suf­fering from the dissection between the re­ligious and secular sciences.

This issue goes back to the basic dif­ference between the Islamic and Chris­tian view of knowledge. In Christianity, the Bible relates the fall of man to the sin of stealing the fruit from the tree of knowledge; whereas, in Islam, the Quran describes knowledge as the basis on which the man was given preference over the angels. Even historically, the Chris­tian church is full of stories about its Inquisitors who censored the works of science and also tortured the scientists if they views were contrary to what the Bible said.

In Muslim history, no such institutionalized censorship or suppres­sion of scientists can be found. In the Muslim world, you find the harmonious combination of the two types of knowl­edge. For example, in the person of Ibn Sina, you had someone who had written al-Isharat on philosophy and metaphysics, and also al-Qanun fi’t-Tibb on medi­cine, a book whose Latin translation was used as a text in western universities till two centuries ago!

This dissection between the religious and secular sciences is the root of all the problems in the area of education for the Muslims world-wide. The greatest chal­lenge for the Muslims of the twenty-first century is the issue of the bringing to­gether of the two sciences, religious and secular, in such a way that knowledge brings people closer to God and gives meaning to the life on this earth. This is not impossible because historically the Muslims have done that in the past. Right from the days of Imam Muhammad al- Baqir (a.s.) till the down-fall of the Mus­lim empire. We had Imam Muhammad al-Baqir (a.s) who taught theology to Hisham bin Hakam, Ahadith to Zurarah bin A'yan, and science to Jabir bin Hayyan. In our Imams, we see the ex­ample of a single source for religious as well as secular sciences.

The western science is based on ex­perimental method. Let me just quote something about the alchemy of Muslims from Will Durant's The Story of Civilization,1 Muslim “developed experimental method which is the greatest pride and tool of the modern mind. When Roger Bacon proclaimed that method to Eu­rope, live hundred years after Jabir bin Hayyan, he owned his illumination to the Moors of Spain, whose light had come from the Muslim East."

But, for today, I would like to briefly look at this issue in the Western context and propose some ideas which hopefully would generate discussions in the work­shop this afternoon.

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Education in the context of Islam is regarded as a process that involves the complete person, including the rational, spiritual, and social dimensions. As noted by Syed Muhammad al-Naquib al-Attas in 1979, the comprehensive and integrated approach to education in Islam is directed toward the "balanced growth of the total personality…through training Man's spirit, intellect, rational self, feelings and bodily senses…such that faith is infused into the whole of his personality" (p. 158). In Islamic educational theory knowledge is gained in order to actualize and perfect all dimensions of the human being. From an Islamic perspective the highest and most useful model of perfection is the prophet Muhammad, and the goal of Islamic education is that people be able to live as he lived. Seyyed Hossein Nasr wrote in 1984 that while education does prepare humankind for happiness in this life, "its ultimate goal is the abode of permanence and all education points to the permanent world of eternity" (p. 7). To ascertain truth by reason alone is restrictive, according to Islam, because spiritual and temporal reality are two sides of the same sphere. Many Muslim educationists argue that favoring reason at the expense of spirituality interferes with balanced growth. Exclusive training of the intellect, for example, is inadequate in developing and refining elements of love, kindness, compassion, and selflessness, which have an altogether spiritual ambiance and can be engaged only by processes of spiritual training.

Education in Islam is twofold: acquiring intellectual knowledge (through the application of reason and logic) and developing spiritual knowledge (derived from divine revelation and spiritual experience). According to the worldview of Islam, provision in education must be made equally for both. Acquiring knowledge in Islam is not intended as an end but as a means to stimulate a more elevated moral and spiritual consciousness, leading to faith and righteous action.

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Despite its glorious legacy of earlier periods, the Islamic world seemed unable to respond either culturally or educationally to the onslaught of Western advancement by the eighteenth century. One of the most damaging aspects of European colonialism was the deterioration of indigenous cultural norms through secularism. With its veneration of human reason over divine revelation and its insistence on separation of religion and state, secularism is anathema to Islam, in which all aspects of life, spiritual or temporal, are interrelated as a harmonious whole. At the same time, Western institutions of education, with their pronounced secular/religious dichotomy, were infused into Islamic countries in order to produce functionaries to feed the bureaucratic and administrative needs of the state. The early modernizers did not fully realize the extent to which secularized education fundamentally conflicted with Islamic thought and traditional lifestyle. Religious education was to remain a separate and personal responsibility, having no place in public education. If Muslim students desired religious training, they could supplement their existing education with moral instruction in traditional religious schools–the kuttāb. As a consequence, the two differing education systems evolved independently with little or no official interface.

Aims and Objectives of Islamic Education

The Arabic language has three terms for education, representing the various dimensions of the educational process as perceived by Islam. The most widely used word for education in a formal sense is ta'līm, from the root 'alima (to know, to be aware, to perceive, to learn), which is used to denote knowledge being sought or imparted through instruction and teaching. Tarbiyah, from the root raba (to increase, to grow, to rear), implies a state of spiritual and ethical nurturing in accordance with the will of God. Ta'dīb, from the root aduba (to be cultured, refined, well-mannered), suggests a person's development of sound social behavior. What is meant by sound requires a deeper understanding of the Islamic conception of the human being.

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During the golden age of the Islamic empire (usually defined as a period between the tenth and thirteenth centuries), when western Europe was intellectually backward and stagnant, Islamic scholarship flourished with an impressive openness to the rational sciences, art, and even literature. It was during this period that the Islamic world made most of its contributions to the scientific and artistic world. Ironically, Islamic scholars preserved much of the knowledge of the Greeks that had been prohibited by the Christian world. Other outstanding contributions were made in areas of chemistry, botany, physics, mineralogy, mathematics, and astronomy, as many Muslim thinkers regarded scientific truths as tools for accessing religious truth.

Gradually the open and vigorous spirit of enquiry and individual judgment (ijtihād) that characterized the golden age gave way to a more insular, unquestioning acceptance (taqlīd) of the traditional corpus of authoritative knowledge. By the thirteenth century, according to Aziz Talbani, the 'ulama' (religious scholars) had become "self-appointed interpreters and guardians of religious knowledge.… learning was confined to the transmission of traditions and dogma, and [was] hostile to research and scientific inquiry" (p. 70). The mentality of taqlīd reigned supreme in all matters, and religious scholars condemned all other forms of inquiry and research. Exemplifying the taqlīd mentality, Burhän al-Din al-Zarnüji wrote during the thirteenth century, "Stick to ancient things while avoiding new things" and "Beware of becoming engrossed in those disputes which come about after one has cut loose from the ancient authorities" (pp. 28, 58). Much of what was written after the thirteenth century lacked originality, and it consisted mostly of commentaries on existing canonical works without adding any substantive new ideas. The lethal combination of taqlīd and foreign invasion beginning in the thirteenth century served to dim Islam's preeminence in both the artistic and scientific worlds.

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History of Islamic Education

Thus, in this way, Islamic education began. Pious and learned Muslims (mu' allim or mudarris), dedicated to making the teachings of the Koran more accessible to the Islamic community, taught the faithful in what came to be known as the kuttāb (plural, katātīb). The kuttāb could be located in a variety of venues: mosques, private homes, shops, tents, or even out in the open. Historians are uncertain as to when the katātīb were first established, but with the widespread desire of the faithful to study the Koran, katātīb could be found in virtually every part of the Islamic empire by the middle of the eighth century. The kuttāb served a vital social function as the only vehicle for formal public instruction for primary-age children and continued so until Western models of education were introduced in the modern period. Even at present, it has exhibited remarkable durability and continues to be an important means of religious instruction in many Islamic countries.

The curriculum of the kuttāb was primarily directed to young male children, beginning as early as age four, and was centered on Koranic studies and on religious obligations such as ritual ablutions, fasting, and prayer. The focus during the early history of Islam on the education of youth reflected the belief that raising children with correct principles was a holy obligation for parents and society. As Abdul Tibawi wrote in 1972, the mind of the child was believed to be "like a white clean paper, once anything is written on it, right or wrong, it will be difficult to erase it or superimpose new writing upon it" (p. 38). The approach to teaching children was strict, and the conditions in which young students learned could be quite harsh. Corporal punishment was often used to correct laziness or imprecision. Memorization of the Koran was central to the curriculum of the kuttāb, but little or no attempt was made to analyze and discuss the meaning of the text. Once students had memorized the greater part of the Koran, they could advance to higher stages of education, with increased complexity of instruction. Western analysts of the kuttāb system usually criticize two areas of its pedagogy: the limited range of subjects taught and the exclusive reliance on memorization. The contemporary kuttāb system still emphasizes memorization and recitation as important means of learning. The value placed on memorization during students' early religious training directly influences their approaches to learning when they enter formal education offered by the modern state. A common frustration of modern educators in the Islamic world is that while their students can memorize copious volumes of notes and textbook pages, they often lack competence in critical analysis and independent thinking.

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History of Islamic Education, Aims and Objectives of Islamic Education

Islam has, from its inception, placed a high premium on education and has enjoyed a long and rich intellectual tradition. Knowledge ('ilm) occupies a significant position within Islam, as evidenced by the more than 800 references to it in Islam's most revered book, the Koran. The importance of education is repeatedly emphasized in the Koran with frequent injunctions, such as "God will exalt those of you who believe and those who have knowledge to high degrees" (58:11), "O my Lord! Increase me in knowledge" (20:114), and "As God has taught him, so let him write" (2:282). Such verses provide a forceful stimulus for the Islamic community to strive for education and learning.

Islamic education is uniquely different from other types of educational theory and practice largely because of the all-encompassing influence of the Koran. The Koran serves as a comprehensive blueprint for both the individual and society and as the primary source of knowledge. The advent of the Koran in the seventh century was quite revolutionary for the predominantly illiterate Arabian society. Arab society had enjoyed a rich oral tradition, but the Koran was considered the word of God and needed to be organically interacted with by means of reading and reciting its words. Hence, reading and writing for the purpose of accessing the full blessings of the Koran was an aspiration for most Muslims. Thus, education in Islam unequivocally derived its origins from a symbiotic relationship with religious instruction.

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